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Commonly Used Symbols, Subscripts, and Abbreviations CHAPTER 1 Engine Types and Their Operation 1.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 1.2 Engine Classifications 1.3 Engine Operating Cycles 1.4 Engine Components 1.5 Multicylinder Engines 1.6 Spark-Ignition Engine Operation 1.7 Different Types of Four-Stroke SI Engines 1.7.1 Spark-Ignition Engines with Port Fuel Injection 1.7.2 SI Engines for Hybrid Electric Vehicles 1.7.3 Boosted SI Engines 1.7.4 Direct-Injection SI Engines 1.7.5 Prechamber SI Engines 1.7.6 Rotary Engines 1.8 Compression-Ignition Engine Operation 1.9 Different Types of Diesel Engines 1.10 Two-Stroke Cycle Engine Operation 1.11 Fuels 1.11.1 Gasoline and Diesel 1.11.2 Alternative Fuels Problems References CHAPTER 2 Engine Design and Operating Parameters 2.1 Important Engine Characteristics 2.2 Geometrical Relationships for Reciprocating Engines 2.3 Forces in Reciprocating Mechanism 2.4 Brake Torque and Power 2.5 Indicated Work per Cycle 2.6 Mechanical Efficiency 2.7 Mean Effective Pressure 2.8 Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency 2.9 Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios 2.10 Volumetric Efficiency 2.11 Specific Power, Specific Weight, and Specific Volume 2.12 Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Efficiency 2.13 Specific Emissions and Emissions Index 2.14 Relationships between Performance Parameters 2.15 Engine Design and Performance Data 2.16 Vehicle Power Requirements Problems References CHAPTER 3 Thermochemistry of Fuel-Air Mixtures 3.1 Characterization of Flames 3.2 Ideal Gas Model 3.3 Composition of Air and Fuels 3.4 Combustion Stoichiometry 3.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion 3.5.1 Energy and Enthalpy Balances 3.5.2 Enthalpies of Formation 3.5.3 Heating Values 3.5.4 Adiabatic Combustion Processes 3.5.5 Combustion Efficiency of an Internal Combustion Engine 3.6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion 3.6.1 Entropy 3.6.2 Maximum Work from an Internal Combustion Engine and Efficiency 3.7 Chemically Reacting Gas Mixtures 3.7.1 Chemical Equilibrium 3.7.2 Chemical Reaction Rates Problems References CHAPTER 4 Properties of Working Fluids 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Unburned Mixture Composition 4.3 Gas Property Relationships 4.4 A Simple Analytic Ideal Gas Model 4.5 Thermodynamic Property Charts 4.5.1 Unburned Mixture Charts 4.5.2 Burned Mixture Charts 4.5.3 Relation between Unburned and Burned Mixture Charts 4.6 Tables of Properties and Composition 4.7 Computer Routines for Property and Composition Calculations 4.7.1 Unburned Mixtures 4.7.2 Burned Mixtures 4.8 Transport Properties 4.9 Exhaust Gas Composition 4.9.1 Species Concentration Data 4.9.2 Equivalence Ratio Determination from Exhaust Gas Constituents 4.9.3 Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio Nonuniformity 4.9.4 Combustion Inefficiency Problems References CHAPTER 5 Ideal Models of Engine Cycles 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Ideal Models of Engine Processes 5.3 Thermodynamic Relations for Engine Processes 5.4 Cycle Analysis with Ideal Gas Working Fluid with cv and cp Constant 5.4.1 Constant-Volume Cycle 5.4.2 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles 5.4.3 Cycle Comparison 5.5 Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis 5.5.1 SI Engine Cycle Simulation 5.5.2 CI Engine Cycle Simulation 5.5.3 Results of Cycle Calculations 5.6 Overexpanded Engine Cycles 5.7 Availability Analysis of Engine Processes 5.7.1 Availability Relationships 5.7.2 Entropy Changes in Ideal Cycles 5.7.3 Availability Analysis of Ideal Cycles 5.7.4 Effect of Equivalence Ratio 5.8 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles Problems References CHAPTER 6 Gas Exchange Processes 6.1 Intake and Exhaust Processes in the Four-Stroke Cycle 6.2 Volumetric Efficiency 6.2.1 Quasi-Static Effects 6.2.2 Intake and Exhaust Flow Resistances 6.2.3 Intake and In-Cylinder Heat Transfer 6.2.4 Intake Valve Timing Effects 6.2.5 Airflow Choking at Intake Valve 6.2.6 Intake and Exhaust Tuning 6.2.7 Combined Effects: Naturally-Aspirated Engines 6.2.8 Effects of Turbocharging 6.3 Flow through Valves and Ports 6.3.1 Valve and Port Geometry and Operation 6.3.2 Flow Rates and Discharge Coefficients 6.3.3 Variable Valve Timing and Control 6.4 Residual Gas Fraction 6.5 Exhaust Gas Flow Rate and Temperature Variation 6.6 Scavenging in Two-Stroke Cycle Engines 6.6.1 Two-Stroke Engine Configurations 6.6.2 Scavenging Parameters and Models 6.6.3 Actual Scavenging Processes 6.7 Flow through Two-Stroke Engine Ports 6.8 Supercharging and Turbocharging 6.8.1 Methods of Power Boosting 6.8.2 Basic Relationships 6.8.3 Compressors 6.8.4 Turbines 6.8.5 Compressor, Engine, Turbine Matching 6.8.6 Wave-Compression Devices Problems References CHAPTER 7 Mixture Preparation in SI Engines 7.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Mixture Requirements 7.2 Fuel Metering Overview 7.2.1 Mixture Formation Approaches 7.2.2 Relevant Characteristics of Fuels 7.3 Central (Throttle-Body) Fuel Injection 7.4 Port (Multipoint) Fuel Injection 7.4.1 System Layout, Components, and Function 7.4.2 Fuel Spray Behavior 7.4.3 Reverse Flow Impacts 7.5 Air Flow Phenomena 7.5.1 Flow Past the Throttle Plate 7.5.2 Flow in Intake Manifolds 7.5.3 Air Flow Models 7.6 Fuel Flow Phenomena: Port Fuel Injection 7.6.1 Liquid Fuel Behavior 7.6.2 Transients: Fuel-Film Models 7.7 Direct Fuel Injection 7.7.1 Overview of Direct-Injection Approaches 7.7.2 DI Mixture Preparation Processes 7.7.3 DI Engine System and Components 7.8 Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensors 7.9 Fuel Supply Systems 7.10 Liquid Petroleum Gas and Natural Gas Problems References CHAPTER 8 Charge Motion within the Cylinder 8.1 Intake-Generated Flows 8.2 Mean Velocity and Turbulence Characteristics 8.2.1 Definitions of Relevant Parameters 8.2.2 Application to Engine Velocity Data 8.3 Swirl 8.3.1 Swirl Measurement 8.3.2 Swirl Generation during Induction 8.3.3 Swirl Modification within the Cylinder 8.4 Tumble 8.5 Piston-Generated Flows: Squish 8.6 Swirl, Tumble, Squish Flow Interactions 8.7 Prechamber Engine Flows 8.8 Crevice Flows and Blowby 8.9 Flows Generated by Piston Cylinder-Wall Interaction Problems References CHAPTER 9 Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines 9.1 Essential Features of Process 9.1.1 Combustion Fundamentals 9.1.2 SI Engine Combustion Process 9.2 Thermodynamics of SI Engine Combustion 9.2.1 Burned and Unburned Mixture States 9.2.2 Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data 9.2.3 Combustion Process Characterization 9.3 Flame Structure and Speed 9.3.1 Overall Observations 9.3.2 Flame Structure 9.3.3 Laminar Burning Speeds 9.3.4 Flame Propagation Relations 9.3.5 Combustion with Direct Fuel Injection 9.4 Cyclic Variations in Combustion, Partial Burning, and Misfire 9.4.1 Observations and Definitions 9.4.2 Causes of Cycle-by-Cycle and Cylinder-to-Cylinder Variations 9.4.3 Partial Burning, Misfire, and Engine Stability 9.5 Spark Ignition 9.5.1 Ignition Fundamentals 9.5.2 Standard Ignition Systems 9.5.3 Alternative Ignition Approaches 9.6 Abnormal Combustion: Spontaneous Ignition and Knock 9.6.1 Description of Phenomena 9.6.2 Knock Fundamentals 9.6.3 Fuel Factors 9.6.4 Sporadic Preignition and Knock 9.6.5 Knock Suppression Problems References CHAPTER 10 Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines 10.1 Essential Features of Process 10.2 Types of Diesel Combustion Systems 10.2.1 Direct-Injection Systems 10.2.2 Other Diesel Combustion Systems 10.2.3 Comparison of Different Combustion Systems 10.3 Diesel Engine Combustion 10.3.1 Optical Studies of Diesel Combustion 10.3.2 Combustion in Direct-Injection Multi-Spray Systems 10.3.3 Heat-Release-Rate Analysis 10.3.4 Conceptual Model of DI Diesel Combustion 10.4 Fuel Spray Behavior 10.4.1 Fuel Injection 10.4.2 Overall Spray Structure 10.4.3 Atomization and Spray Development 10.4.4 Spray Penetration 10.4.5 Droplet Size Distribution 10.4.6 Spray Evaporation 10.5 Ignition Delay 10.5.1 Definition and Discussion 10.5.2 Fuel Ignition Quality 10.5.3 Autoignition and Premixed Burn 10.5.4 Physical Factors Affecting Ignition Delay 10.5.5 Effect of Fuel Properties 10.5.6 Correlations for Ignition Delay in Engines 10.6 Mixing-Controlled Combustion 10.6.1 Background 10.6.2 Spray and Flame Structure 10.6.3 Fuel-Air Mixing and Burning Rates 10.7 Alternative Compression-Ignition Combustion Approaches 10.7.1 Multiple-Injection Diesel Combustion 10.7.2 Advanced Compression-Ignition Combustion Concepts Problems References CHAPTER 11 Pollutant Formation and Control 11.1 Nature and Extent of Problem 11.2 Nitrogen Oxides 11.2.1 Kinetics of NO Formation 11.2.2 Formation of NO2 11.2.3 NO Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines 11.2.4 NOx Formation in Compression-Ignition Engine s 11.3 Carbon Monoxide 11.4 Hydrocarbon Emissions 11.4.1 Background 11.4.2 Flame Quenching and Oxidation Fundamentals 11.4.3 HC Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engines 11.4.4 Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanisms in Diesel Engine 11.5 Particulate Emissions 11.5.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Particulates 11.5.2 Characteristics of Diesel Particulates 11.5.3 Particulate Distribution within the Cylinder 11.5.4 Soot Formation Fundamentals 11.5.5 Soot Oxidation 11.5.6 Adsorption and Condensation 11.6 Exhaust Gas Treatment 11.6.1 Available Options 11.6.2 Catalyst Fundamentals 11.6.3 Catalytic Converters 11.6.4 Particulate Filters or Traps 11.6.5 Exhaust Treatment Systems Problems References CHAPTER 12 Engine Heat Transfer 12.1 Importance of Heat Transfer 12.2 Modes of Heat Transfer 12.2.1 Conduction 12.2.2 Convection 12.2.3 Radiation 12.2.4 Overall Heat-Transfer Process 12.3 Heat Transfer and Engine Energy Balance 12.4 Convective Heat Transfer 12.4.1 Dimensional Analysis 12.4.2 Correlations for Time-Averaged Heat Flux 12.4.3 Correlations for Instantaneous Spatial Average Coefficients 12.4.4 Correlations for Instantaneous Local Coefficients 12.4.5 Exhaust and Intake System Heat Transfer 12.5 Radiative Heat Transfer 12.5.1 Radiation from Gases 12.5.2 Flame Radiation 12.6 Measurements of Instantaneous Heat-Transfer Rates 12.6.1 Measurement Methods 12.6.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Measurements 12.6.3 Diesel Engine Measurements 12.6.4 Evaluation of Heat-Transfer Correlations 12.6.5 Boundary-Layer Behavior 12.7 Thermal Loading and Component Temperatures 12.7.1 Effect of Engine Variables 12.7.2 Component Temperature Distributions 12.7.3 Engine Warm-Up Problems References CHAPTER 13 Engine Friction and Lubrication 13.1 Background 13.2 Definitions 13.3 Friction Fundamentals 13.3.1 Lubricated Friction 13.3.2 Turbulent Dissipation 13.3.3 Total Friction 13.4 Measurement Methods 13.5 Engine Friction Data 13.5.1 SI Engines 13.5.2 Diesel Engines 13.6 Mechanical Friction Components 13.6.1 Motored Engine Breakdown Tests 13.6.2 Engine Lubrication System 13.6.3 Piston Assembly Friction and Lubrication 13.6.4 Crankshaft Friction 13.6.5 Valvetrain Friction 13.7 Pumping Friction 13.8 Accessory Power Requirements 13.9 Engine Friction Modeling 13.10 Oil Consumption 13.10.1 Oil Consumption Context 13.10.2 Oil Transport into the Cylinder 13.10.3 Oil Evaporation 13.10.4 Blowby and Oil Entrainment 13.11 Lubricants Problems References CHAPTER 14 Modeling Real Engine Flow and Combustion Processes 14.1 Purpose and Classification of Models 14.2 Governing Equations for an Open Thermodynamic System 14.2.1 Conservation of Mass 14.2.2 Conservation of Energy 14.3 Intake and Exhaust Flow Models 14.3.1 Background 14.3.2 Quasi-Steady Flow Models 14.3.3 Filling and Emptying Methods 14.3.4 Gas Dynamic Models 14.4 Thermodynamic-Based In-Cylinder Models 14.4.1 Background and Overall Model Structure 14.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Models 14.4.3 Direct-Injection Engine Models 14.4.4 Prechamber Engine Models 14.4.5 Multi-Cylinder and Complex Engine System Models 14.4.6 Second-Law Analysis of Engine Processes 14.5 Fluid-Mechanic-Based Multi-Dimensional Models 14.5.1 Basic Approach and Governing Equations 14.5.2 Turbulence Models 14.5.3 Numerical Methodology 14.5.4 Flow Field Predictions 14.5.5 Fuel Spray Modeling 14.5.6 Combustion Modeling References CHAPTER 15 Engine Operating Characteristics 15.1 Engine Design Objectives 15.2 Engine Performance 15.2.1 Basic Characteristics of SI and Diesel Engines 15.2.2 Characterizing Engine Performance 15.2.3 Torque, Power, and Mean Effective Pressure 15.2.4 Engine Performance Maps 15.3 Operating Variables That Affect SI Engine Performance, Efficiency, and Emissions 15.3.1 Spark Timing 15.3.2 Mixture Composition 15.3.3 Load and Speed 15.3.4 Compression Ratio 15.4 SI Engine Combustion System Design 15.4.1 Objectives and Options 15.4.2 Factors That Control Combustion 15.4.3 Factors That Control Performance 15.4.4 Chamber Octane Requirement 15.4.5 SI Engine Emissions 15.4.6 Optimization 15.5 Variables That Affect Diesel Engine Performance, Efficiency, and Emissions 15.5.1 Load and Speed 15.5.2 Combustion-System Design 15.5.3 Fuel Injection and EGR 15.5.4 Overall System Behavior 15.6 Two-Stroke Cycle Engines 15.6.1 Performance Parameters 15.6.2 Two-Stroke Gasoline SI Engines 15.6.3 Two-Stroke Cycle CI Engines 15.7 Noise, Vibration, and Harshness 15.7.1 Engine Noise 15.7.2 Reciprocating Mechanism Dynamics 15.7.3 Engine Balancing 15.8 Engine Performance and Fuels Summary Problems References APPENDIX A Unit Conversion Factors APPENDIX B Ideal Gas Relationships B.1 Ideal Gas Law B.2 The Mole B.3 Thermodynamic Properties B.4 Mixtures of Ideal Gases APPENDIX C Equations for Fluid Flow through a Restriction C.1 Liquid Flow C.2 Gas Flow References APPENDIX D Data on Working Fluids Index

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